1.3. State structure

The 1973 constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan provides for a federal64 parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature comprising the Senate of Pakistan and the National Assembly of Pakistan.65 For a bill to become law, it must be passed by both houses and receive presidential assent.66 The Senate has 96 members, who are elected by the four provincial assemblies and the federal capital territory for six-year terms; its composition includes reserved seats for women (four per province and one from the Federal Capital) and non-Muslims (one per province), as well as seats commonly categorised for technocrats/ulema (religious scholars) (four per province and one from the Federal Capital). Half of the house is renewed every three years.67 The National Assembly is composed of 336 members in total. Of these, 266 are chosen through direct elections, while 60 seats are allocated to women and a further 10 are set aside for representatives of religious minority communities. The selection of members takes place under a mixed electoral framework, which integrates both regional representation and proportional representation mechanisms.68 The National Assembly elects the prime minister,69 while the president is elected by an electoral college, consisting of members of both houses and the provincial assemblies.70 The president has constitutionally defined ordinance-making powers when parliament is not in session; ordinances have the force of law but are time-limited and must be placed before parliament for continuation.71

The president appoints the cabinet on the advice of the prime minister;72 in line with the constitution, the prime minister exercises most executive authority, while the president, as head of state,73 generally performs a more ceremonial function.74 At provincial level, executive authority is exercised by provincial governments led by chief ministers,75 while each province also has a governor appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister.76 As a federal state, Pakistan also has constitutional coordination mechanisms for federation–province relations, including the Council of Common Interests77 (which is tasked with formulating and regulating policies in specified shared subject areas78) and the National Economic Council (which has a constitutional mandate related to reviewing the economy and advising on economic planning).79 Despite these mechanisms, several scholars noticed the challenges provincial autonomy faces in the country.80

Several observers further consider the military to be the most dominant actor in Pakistan’s political system,81 citing its involvement in electoral processes, government formation and key policy decisions. Freedom House, for example, characterises the military as exercising ‘enormous influence’ across these domains.82 This position has been further institutionalised through the 27th constitutional amendment, which consolidated military command structures and conferred lifetime rank and legal immunity on the highest-ranking officers.83 For further information on 27^th Constitutional amendment, see sections 2.1. Recent political developments and 3.1.1. Pakistan Army.

Within Pakistan’s judicial system, the Supreme Court of Pakistan remains the highest court of appeal in civil and criminal matters84 and is headed by the Chief Justice.85 Following the 26th Constitutional Amendment of 2024, the Chief Justice is appointed for a fixed three-year term through the vote86 of a special parliamentary committee from among the three most senior Supreme Court judges.87 Subordinate courts include the High Courts (one for each province and one for the ICT),88 civil and criminal courts at district levels and a magistracy, which deals with suits by the police force.89 The judiciary also incorporates a religious component: the Federal Shariat Court, whose primary purpose is to assess whether laws conform to Islamic principles.90 The 27th Constitutional Amendment of 2025 fundamentally altered the judicial architecture by establishing the Federal Constitutional Court, which was granted exclusive jurisdiction over constitutional interpretation, inter-governmental disputes, enforcement of fundamental rights and the review of constitutional amendments.91 Judges of this court are appointed under a framework that increases parliamentary and executive involvement.92 Critics have argued that the reforms of 2024 and 2025 weaken judicial independence by expanding political influence.93 For more information, see section 5.2. Major judicial and constitutional reforms.